Intergroup exchanges are an integral part of social life but are compromised when one group pursues its interests at another group’s expense. The present research investigates whether expressing emotion can mitigate the negative consequences of such actions. We examine how emotions communicated by either an ingroup or outgroup member following an ingroup member’s breach of trust affect other ingroup members’ feelings of guilt and pride, and subsequent reparatory behavior. Groups of participants played a two-round trust game with another group. In round one, they observed a member of their own group failing to reciprocate a trusting move by the outgroup. This was followed by anger vs. disappointment communicated by an outgroup member (Study 1) or happiness vs. guilt communicated by an ingroup member (Study 2). Comparisons with no-emotion control conditions revealed that expressions of outgroup anger and ingroup guilt increased participants’ reparatory behavior (allocations to an outgroup member in round two). The effect of an outgroup member’s anger expression was mediated by participants’ diminished feelings of pride about the ingroup action, whereas the effect of an ingroup member’s guilt expression was mediated by participants’ own feelings of guilt. Taken together, these findings support a social appraisal approach and highlight the roles that pride and guilt can play in shaping intergroup reparatory behavior.This project investigates how one person's emotional expressions affect other people's perceptions of the motives behind his or her actions. We also focus on people's attempts to control their expressions in order to communicate or disguise their motives, and how perceivers factor in their sense that expressions are regulated before responding to them. For example, if you believe that my sorrow concerning your misfortune is insincere rather than sincere, your perceptions of my motives and response to my actions is likely to be different. The guiding idea of the research is that emotions communicate information about what people are trying to achieve and about their evaluations of possible outcomes (appraisals). Our studies will focus on the impact of emotion communication and miscommunication on trust and cooperation between individuals and groups. We make use of experimental games in which there is a tension between motives to act in one's own self-interest and motives to act in the interests of one or more other people. Access to emotional information during these games is controlled using video-mediation and/or "virtual confederates" (avatars programmed either to capture participants' facial movements, or to display prespecified emotions). Our basic premise is that emotional expressions during experimental games (a) influence whether people make self-interested or other-interested decisions through their influence on perceived trustworthiness, (b) are regulated by players in order to communicate prosocial motives despite behaviour that appears to be self-interested, (c) are likely to be misinterpreted in situations where there are motives for players to misrepresent their true feelings, and (d) give rise to different interpersonal consequences depending on whether perceivers think that the expressions have been regulated. We will also explore the operation of similar processes in more naturalistic scenarios, allowing us to assess the applicability of our findings in other kinds of social interactions. The research will advance theoretical thinking about the role of emotions in social interaction and will have implications for a broad range of everyday settings in which emotional displays influence social behaviour, such as negotiation, conflict resolution, resource dilemmas, and service industries in which there is emotional labour (e.g., customer relations).

Study 1 was implemented in Qualtrics and used a between-subjects design, with three outgroup emotion conditions (anger: n = 23; disappointment: n = 24; control: n = 20). Study 2 was implemented in MediaLab and was similar to Study 1, but used a more immersive paradigm. Participants were recruited in groups of 2 or 3. Each group was accompanied by one of two female confederates who posed as a fellow participant.