The Party–Citizen Linkages Survey asked country experts of 36 countries for their assessment of the inclusiveness of political parties around the world, from Albania to Zimbabwe. Strong democracies require inclusive, programmatic parties, particularly so in diverse societies. How do we know when political parties are inclusive, or when more needs to be done to empower marginalised groups? Experts were asked to answer questions on party organisation, campaign strategies, and political positions. The questionnaire consisted of four sections with a total of 31 questions. The political mobilisation of ethnicity has led to tensions between ethnic groups in, for example, Belgium and Canada, and to violent conflict with disastrous consequences in such diverse cases as Cyprus, Rwanda, and Sri Lanka. Some observers point to the particularistic politics of ethnic parties as fomenting ethnic tensions and call for their regulation. Others argue that ethnic parties may be valuable vehicles in solving such tensions because they contribute to the integration of diverse ethnic groups. However, both views are so far based on assumptions rather than empirical evidence; to date, the effect of ethnic parties on ordinary people within society has not been examined directly. The project fills this gap, contributing to a better understanding of the links between ethnic parties and national unity within the population: Does the presence of ethnic parties affect the way people perceive the ethnic "other" or the nation? Is this effect positive, because ethnic parties as emancipatory vehicles increase the inclusion of ethnic minorities within the population? Or is it negative, because ethnic parties raise awareness of ethnic differences? To answer these questions, the project first conducts a global comparative analysis of 105 diverse countries, using a new multilevel dataset. It will then conduct in-depth studies of two countries to examine the nature of these links. Both the quantitative and in-depth analyses are needed to better understand whether there are general links between the presence of ethnic parties and diminished national unity throughout different contexts and to identify the nature of this link in important cases.

Snowball Sampling, Personalised Single Access Online Questionnaire. Respondents were contacted and invited through a snowball system, beginning with experts from the Netherlands Institute for Multiparty Democracy (NIMD) and other foundations and NGOs working in the respective countries. Participating experts were asked to provide contact details of other experts for their country of expertise or other countries. The survey was conducted as a personalised online survey, using the University of Bristol’s own online survey tool BOS. While the participants were guaranteed anonymity, the personalisation meant that the researchers safeguarded control over participation and that the link to the survey could not be passed on to non-experts. In total, 149 individual experts assessed 148 parties in 36 countries, with 10% not currently living in or being citizens of their country of expertise, 64% being citizens of their country of expertise, and 26% being residents but not citizens of their countries of expertise.